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In the direct gene transfer methods, the foreign gene of interest is delivered into the host plant without the help of a vector. The following are some of the common methods of direct gene transfer in plants. a. Chemical mediated gene transfer: Certain chemicals like polyethylene glycol (PEG) and dextran sulphate induce DNA uptake into […]
The propagation of the recombinant DNA molecules must occur inside a living system or host. Many types of host cells are available for gene cloning which includes E.coli, yeast, animal or plant cells. The type of host cell depends upon the cloning experiment. E.coli is the most widely used organism as its genetic make-up has […]
Vectors Another major component of a gene cloning experiment is a vector such as a plasmid. A Vector is a small DNA molecule capable of self-replication and is used as a carrier and transporter of DNA fragment which is inserted into it for cloning experiments. Vector is also called cloning vehicle or cloning DNA. Vectors […]
Restriction Enzymes The two enzymes responsible for restricting the growth of bacteriophage in Escherichia coli were isolated in the year 1963. One was the enzyme which added methyl groups to DNA, while the other cut DNA. The latter was called restriction endonuclease. A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cleaves DNA into […]
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology or gene cloning is a collective term that includes different experimental protocols resulting in the modification and transfer of DNA from one organism to another. The definition for conventional recombination was already given in Unit II. Conventional recombination involves exchange or recombination of genes between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. […]
Single Cell Protein (SCP) Single cell proteins are dried cells of microorganism that are used as protein supplement in human foods or animal feeds. Single Cell Protein (SCP) offers an unconventional but plausible solution to protein deficiency faced by the entire humanity. Although single cell protein has high nutritive value due to their higher protein, […]
Fermentation The word fermentation is derived from the Latin verb ‘fervere’ which means ‘ to boil’. Fermentation refers to the metabolic process in which organic molecules (normally glucose) are converted into acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen or any electron transport chain. The study of fermentation, its practical uses is called zymology […]
PLCs Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to as programmable controllers, are in the computer family. They are used in commercial and industrial applications. A PLC monitors inputs, makes decisions based on its program, and controls outputs to automate a process or machine. This course is meant to supply you with basic information on the […]
Biotechnology has developed by leaps and bounds during the past century and its development can be well understood under two main heads namely conventional or traditional biotechnology and modern biotechnology 1. Conventional or traditional biotechnology: This is the kitchen technology developed by our ancestors, and it is as old as human civilization. It uses bacteria […]
Biotechnology is the science of applied biological processes. In other words it is science of development and utilization of biological processes, forms and systems for the benefit of mankind and other life forms. The term biotechnology was coined by Karl Ereky, a Hungarian Engineer in 1919 and has been extended to include any process in […]
Chromosomal mutations The genome can also be modified on a larger scale by altering the chromosome structure or by changing the number of chromosomes in a cell. These large-scale variations are termed as chromosomal mutations or chromosomal aberrations. Gene mutations are changes that take place within a gene, whereas chromosomal mutations are changes to a […]
Mutagenic agents The factors which cause genetic mutation are called mutagenic agents or mutagens. Mutagens are of two types, physical mutagen and chemical mutagen. Muller (1927) was the f irst to find out physical mutagen in Drosophila. Physical mutagens: Scientists are using temperature and radiations such as X rays, gamma rays, alfa rays, beta rays, […]
Genetic variation among individuals provides the raw material for the ultimate source of evolutionary changes. Mutation and recombination are the two major processes responsible for genetic variation. A sudden change in the genetic material of an organisms is called mutation. The term mutation was introduced by Hugo de Vries (1901) while he has studying on […]
Sex determination in maize Zea mays (maize) is an example for monoecious, which means male and female flowers are present on the same plant. There are two types of inflorescence. The terminal inflorescence which bears staminate florets develops from shoot apical meristem called tassel. The lateral inflorescence which develop pistillate f lorets from axillary bud […]
Self-sterility in Nicotiana In plants, multiple alleles have been reported in association with self-sterility or selfincompatibility. Self-sterility means that the pollen from a plant is unable to germinate on its own stigma and will not be able to bring about fertilization in the ovules of the same plant. East (1925) observed multiple alleles in Nicotiana […]
Genetic Mapping Genes are present in a linear order along the chromosome. They are present in a specific location called locus (plural: loci). The diagrammatic representation of position of genes and related distances between the adjacent genes is called genetic mapping. It is directly proportional to the frequency of recombination between them. It is also […]
Crossing Over Crossing over is a biological process that produces new combination of genes by interchanging the corresponding segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous pair of chromosomes. The term ‘crossing over’ was coined by Morgan (1912). It takes place during pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis. Usually crossing over occurs in germinal cells during […]
Linkage The genes which determine the character of an individual are carried by the chromosomes. The genes for different characters may be present either in the same chromosome or in different chromosomes. When the genes are present in different chromosomes, they assort independently according to Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment. Biologists came across certain genetic […]
Extra Chromosomal Inheritance or Extra Nuclear Inheritance (Cytoplasmic Inheritance) DNA is the universal genetic material. Genes located in nuclear chromosomes follow Mendelian inheritance. But certain traits are governed either by the chloroplast or mitochondrial genes. This phenomenon is known as extra nuclear inheritance. It is a kind of Non-Mendelian inheritance. Since it involves cytoplasmic organelles […]
Polygenic Inheritance in Wheat (Kernel colour) Polygenic inheritance Several genes combine to affect a single trait. A group of genes that together determine (contribute) a characteristic of an organism is called polygenic inheritance. It gives explanations to the inheritance of continuous traits which are compatible with Mendel’s Law. The first experiment on polygenic inheritance was […]